DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Decision Making

The English word decision originated from the Latin word ‘decisio’ which means “to cut from”. To decide means to come to a conclusion or to pass a resolution. Decision making is the thought process of selecting a logical choice from the available options. When typing to make a good decision a person must weigh the positive and negative of each option, and consider all the alternatives for effective decision making, a person must be able to forecast the outcome of each option as well, and based on all these items, determine which option is the best for that particular situation (plous,1993).
Decision making is the study of identifying and choosing alternative based on the values and preferences of the decision maker. Making a decision implies that there are alternative choices to be considered and in such a case we want not only to identify as many of these alternatives as possible but to choose the one that best fits with our goals, objectives, desires, values and so on” (Harris, 1980).

Problem Solving

Problem solving refers to the cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal exist when someone has goal but does not know how to achieve it. Problem can be classified as routine or non-routine as well as defined or undefined.
The major cognitive processes in problem solving are representing planning, executing and monitoring. The major kind of knowledge is required for problem solving are facts, concepts, procedures, strategies and believes. Classical theoretical approaches to the study of problem solving are associations, Gestalt and international processing. Current issues and suggested future issues include decision making, intelligence and creativity, teaching of thinking skills, expert’s problem solving analogical reasoning, mathematical and scientific thinking, every thinking and the cognitive neuroscience of problem solving. Common themes concern the domain specially of problem solving and focus on problem solving in authentic context.
Problem solving skills refers to our ability to solve problems in an effective and timely manner without any impediments. It involves being able to identify and define the problem, generating alternative solutions, evaluating and selecting the best alternative and implementing the selected solution.

APPROACHES TO DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Approaches to decision making

Making great decisions is a key leadership responsibility. If you choose the wrong decision making style, you could face a disaster. Choose the right style and u will make decisions faster and more effectively. When you make decision there are four decisions making approaches these are:
Autocratic decision-making, for situations where you have low impact and they are reasonably small decisions, but they get larger as urgency goes up, an autocratic decision making style is the most appropriate. In autocratic decision making, decisions are made at the top and actually it may be counterproductive to involve a lot of people in making the core. Typically, in an environment where you are making autocratic decisions, work activities and rules are very tightly structured, they are monitored and well controlled.
Consensus-based decision-making, for situations where it’s a large decision but there’s no urgency around it and you have got plenty of time, you can be using a consensus-based decision-making style. This is where decisions are reached with a cross-functional team you should reserve this style of decision making for the biggest decision you are trying to make however, recognize this can take a lot of time. You have to get everybody saying “yes” before that decision is made. You are going to have individuals from multiple groups, multiple functions, all working together, coming up with that final perspectives for the final decision.
Participatory decision making, for lager decisions where there is higher urgency and you need to make a call soon, but the impact is going to be big, you’re looking at the situation where you need to use a participatory decision making style. Remember participatory decisions are made when the decisions are much bigger and there’s a lot more risk involved. Getting additional information from more people is going to reduce decision making risk.
Democratic Decision-making, for mid-sized decisions where there’s not a lot of urgency but you do make a decision and move on, a democratic style is the most appropriate. This is where decision is reached by majority vote. These are the decisions we just have to make and move on with life. Individuals are going to interact in this style.

Approaches to problem solving

Here are common approaches to the problems solving-:
Analytical problem solving an analytical thinker has the ability to get into the detail of the problem, evaluate all components and perspectives to understanding it and determine what’s missing. Analytical thinker asks questions to fill in any gaps they see in order to foresee next steps. They have confidence in their ability and make assumptions and decision because of their constructive fact finding process. Although their assumptions are credible and decision well supported, they may not move quickly enough to steps.
Logical problems solving a logical thinker has the ability to continuously collect detail and put into sequence, allowing them to see the big picture and evaluate where the problems exists and why. Then using historical data, they infer solution based on similar situation. If this worked before in a similar situation, it will work gain in this one. The problem with inferring solution based on past situation occurs when past situation do not exist. When past situation have been exhausted or a new solution is required, the logical problem solver may be at a loss.
Rational problem solving a rational problem solver has the ability to take information that is available and make assumptions based on that information, deduction the most optimal solution given their personal perspective. A rational person may use the words ‘from my perceptive here is the problem and best approach to solve its xyz in order to achieve what I believe to be the best solution’. The problem is that although the approaches may be rationale for that individually, the starting point of the reasoning may be completely unjust to another. Rationale problem solvers often do not see the world from perspective other than their own.
Absolute problem solving an absolute problem solver has the ability to see a problem as a black or white and a solution as right or wrong. Absolute thinker believes there is as right way of doing something and if there is a problem it is because they are unaware of the solution that exists. They try to find that solution have difficulty moving past a problems, they do not like making decision without affirmation that they are moving forward with an accepted approach. Absolute thinkers also tend to groups their thought based on information that they have confidence in inferring a solution that worked elsewhere must work in parallel situation.

THE SEVEN STEPS PROBLEM SOLVING, DECISION MAKING PROCESS

The following are the seven key steps of the problem solving which are-:

Step 1: Identify the Problem

What are things like when they are the way we want them to be?
This question helps you find the standard against which we’re going to measure where we are now. If things were going the way we want them to go, what does that look like? If this person were doing the job we want him or her to do, what would they be doing?
And then ask this important question: How much variation from the norm is tolerable?
Therein lays the problem. From an engineering perspective, you might have very little tolerance. From a behavioral perspective, you might have more tolerance. You might say its okay with me when this person doesn’t do it exactly as I say because I’m okay with them taking some liberty with this. Some other issue you may need 100% compliance.

Step 2: Analyze the Problem

At what stage is this problem? This helps you identify the urgency of the problem, and there are generally three stages.
The emergent stage is where the problem is just beginning to happen. It does not cause an immediate threat to the way business operates every day. It is just beginning to happen and you have time on your side to be able to correct it without it causing much damage to the processes it is affecting.
The mature stage is where this problem is causing more than just minor damage. Some amount of damage has been done, and you need to jump on it immediately to fix it before it becomes a problem where the consequences may be greater, deeper, and more expensive if we don’t solve this problem fast.
The third stage is the crisis stage, when the problem is so serious it must be corrected immediately. At this stage, real damage has been done to company processes, reputation, finances, etc. that will have potentially long-term effects on your ability to do business.

Step 3: Describe the Problem

You should be able to describe a problem by writing it in the form of a statement and you should do it in 12 words or less, assuming it’s not a complicated, scientific problem. This way, you have clarity exactly what the issue is. Then, perhaps try distributing it to your team to ensure they agree that this is the root of the problem that it makes sense, and everyone that is working toward a solution is working toward the same goal. The most important question of all is when describing your problem. Let me give you an example of what I mean. We’ve all heard – or read – the story of the engineer’s take on the old “half empty, half full” question. A speaker holds up the glass of water and asks if the glass is half empty or half full, a discussion within the group ensues, and you generally expect some sort of lesson in optimism, etc. from it. In this version, an engineer is in the room and answers, “I see this glass of water as being twice the size it needs to be.”
You see, sometimes when you are the one in charge of the problem, you tend to set the premise of the problem from your own perspective. But, that premise may not be accurate, or it may just need an alternate perspective from which to see it. If your premise is not correct, or at least incomplete, you are not fully understanding the problem and considering all the best options for a solution.

Step 4: Look for Root Causes

This step involves asking and answering a lot of questions. Ask questions like: What caused this problem? Who is responsible for this problem? When did this problem first emerge? Why did this happen? How did this variance from the standard come to be? Where does it hurt us the most? How do we go about resolving this problem?
Also, ask the most important question: Can we solve this problem for good so it will never occur again? Because an important aspect to leadership is coming up with solutions that people can use for a long-term benefit, rather than having to deal with the same problems over and over and over.

Step 5: Develop Alternate Solutions

Just about any problem you have to deal with has more solutions to it than the one that you think of first. So, it is best to develop a list of alternate solutions that you and your team can assess and decide which one will be the best for the particular problem. I often use the around one – or the top two or three solutions – that will be best for everyone involved.
Then rank those solutions based on efficiency, cost, and long-term value, what resources you have and that you can commit to the solution of the problem. Then, look at every one of those solutions carefully and decide what you believe to be the best solution to this problem at this time.

Step 6: Implement the Solution

Implementing the solution you decide on can include creating an implementation plan. It could also include planning on what happens next if something goes wrong with the solution if it doesn’t work out the way you thought it would. Implementation means that everyone on your team knows and understands their part in making the solution work, that there are timelines for execution, and also that you have a system in place to track whether or not the solution has corrected the problem.

Step 7: Measure the Results

From your implementation plan in step 6, make sure you track and measure the results so you can answer questions such as: Did it work? Was this a good solution? Did we learn something here in the implementation that we could apply to other potential problems?
These seven simple steps will help you become a more effective, efficient problem solver in your organization. As you practice this process and develop the skills, these steps will become more natural to you until the point that you are using them without noticing!

The following are the seven key steps o the decision making process which are-:

Identify the decision.

The first step in making the right decision is recognizing the problem or opportunity and deciding to address it. Determine why this decision will make a difference to your customers or fellow employees.

Gather information.

Next, it’s time to gather information so that you can make a decision based on facts and data. This requires making a value judgment, determining what information is relevant to the decision at hand, along with how you can get it. Ask yourself what you need to know in order to make the right decision, and then actively seek out anyone who needs to be involved.

Identify alternatives.

Once you have a clear understanding of the issue, it’s time to identify the various solutions at your disposal. It’s likely that you have many different options when it comes to making your decision, so it is important to come up with a range of options. This helps you determine which course of action is the best way to achieve your objective.

Weigh the evidence.

In this step, you’ll need to “evaluate for feasibility, acceptability and desirability” to know which alternative is best, according to management experts Phil Higson and Anthony Sturgess. Managers need to be able to weigh pros and cons, and then select the option that has the highest chances of success. It may be helpful to seek out a trusted second opinion to gain a new perspective on the issue at hand.

Choose among alternatives.

When it’s time to make your decision, be sure that you understand the risks involved with your chosen route. You may also choose a combination of alternatives now that you fully grasp all relevant information and potential risks.

Take action.

Next, you’ll need to create a plan for implementation. This involves identifying what resources are required and gaining support from employees and stakeholders. Getting others on board with your decision is a key component of executing your plan effectively, so be prepared to address any questions or concerns that may arise.

Review your decision.

An often-overlooked but important step in the decision making process is evaluating your decision for effectiveness. Ask yourself what you did well and what can be improved next time.

APPLICATIONS OF DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Decision making and problem solving can be applied in any educational institution and is a major responsibility of all administrators, but until decisions are converted into action they are only good intentions.

Deciding is inevitable in educational administration because the school, like all formal organizations, is basically a decision-making structure. According to the classical model, the decision-making process is a series of sequential steps such as a problem is identified, Goals and objectives are established, All the possible alternatives are generated, The consequences of each alternative to be considered, All the alternatives are evaluated in terms of the goals and objectives, The best alternative is selected that is, the one that maximizes the goals and objectives and Finally, the decision is implemented and evaluated.

The following are application technique of decision making and problem solving that can be applied in education institution.

i. Recognize and Define the Problem or Issue

Effective administrators are sensitive to organizational actions and attitudes that do not measure up to the prescribed standards The recognition and definition of a problem are crucial to deciding and often do not receive adequate attention the way a problem is conceptualized is important to subsequent analysis and solution only are sensitivity and perceptual acuteness in the administrator necessary, but a rich conceptual background and a thorough understanding of formal and informal organizations are desirable in framing the problem. During this first application technique of decision making and problem solving it is important to place the problem in perspective. If the problem is complex, its definition likewise will be complicated.

ii. Analyze the Difficulties in the Existing Situation

In this application two ways can be applied which are Generic application and unique application. Generic decisions arise from established principles, policies, or rules indeed recurring problems are routinely solved by formulaic rules and regulations. In all cases the principal should be able to handle the situation by applying the appropriate rule, principle, or policy to the concrete circumstances of the case. Unique applications are probably creative decisions that require going beyond established procedures for a solution here the decision maker deals with an exceptional problem that is not adequately answered by a general principle or rule. In order to seek a creative solution, decision makers explore all ideas that are relevant to the problem.

iii. Establish Criteria for a Satisfactory Solution after the problem has been analyzed and specified

the decision maker must decide what constitutes an acceptable solution. What are the minimum objectives that are to be achieved? What are the musts compared to the wants? It is not unusual for the perfect solution in terms of outcomes to be unfeasible a completely satisfactory outcome usually does not remain after compromise, adaptation, and concession. It is also useful to consider what is satisfactory in both the short and long term.

iv. Develop a Plan or Strategy of Action

This is the central application in the process after recognizing the problem, collecting data, and specifying the problem and its boundary conditions, decision makers develop a systematic and reflective plan of action. The process involves at least the following steps which are Specify alternatives, predict the consequences of each alternative, Deliberate and Select a plan of action. Administrators base their plans of action on simplified pictures of reality, they choose the factors that they regard as most relevant and crucial, and thus they are able to come to some general conclusions and take actions without becoming paralyzed by the facts that "could be" in- directly related to the immediate problems. In describing the application of administrative decision making some application should be considered such as, Do not decide questions that are not pertinent, Do not decide prematurely, Do not make decisions that cannot be effective and Do not make decisions that others should make.

v. Initiate the Plan of Action Once the decision has been made and a plan of action formulated

the decision needs to be implemented the final element in the decision-making application. The initiation of the plan of action requires at least four steps: programming, communicating, monitoring, and appraising. Programming Decisions must be translated and interpreted into specific programs that is, the mechanics and specific details for implementing the plan must be specified. Communicating once the plan has been programmed, it is necessary that each involved individual become aware of his or her responsibilities. Monitoring the process of overseeing the implementation of the plan of action is monitoring. Evaluation and reporting must be built. Appraising once the decision has been programmed, communicated, and monitored; the outcomes still need to be appraised to determine how successful the decision has been. Has the decision been a satisfactory one? What new issues or problems have arisen? Decisions commonly are made in situations where probabilities.






REFERENCES
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Pullin, A.S. (2003). Support for decision making in conservation practice: an evidence-based approach. J Nat conservation.